Continue American Airlines Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Continue American Airlines - Essay Example 352). The airline industry is gravely affected by the rising fuel costs in the global market, rapid evolution of the internet, and other technological factors. 2. Competitive Forces of the Airline Industry Competition in the airline industry is becoming more aggressive since the â€Å"world is experiencing massive expansion of both domestic and international air travel† (Williams, 2009, p. 80). However, the industry has been shakedown by highly dynamic environment that influenced the industry’s competitive forces which include entry of competitors; threat of substitutes; bargaining power of suppliers; bargaining power of buyers; and rivalry among the existing players (Hubbard, 2004). The entry of competitors is determined by the existing barriers that include intense competition, differentiation and the high capital costs of entry. However, when the market is deregulated the liberalized the industry is becoming saturated with new entrants like the LCCs. In terms of thre at of substitutes, customers can also use other carriers such as train, bus or cruise lines in order to reach the desired destination. Furthermore, the bargaining power of buyers and suppliers is among the critical competitive forces of the airline industry because of its direct impact on prices, volume, and profit (Porter, 1998, p. 45). Air travel carriers particularly those that are sharing the same routes need to have their own effective strategies in order to attract travelers, considering that the industry is centered on Boeing and Airbus suppliers. Lastly, competitive rivalry in the airline industry is high because of its low-cost nature; high fixed costs and competitive pricing make the industry grow at a very slow rate. 3. Airlines Firm Competes Today In the history, the airline industry is heavily regulated wherein almost all of the firm’s activities are highly supervised. This isolated manner of competition had initiated in the U.S.; however, it has been remodeled a nd â€Å"for the first time of history of commercial aviation, an open market situation in which competitive market pricing was to be the norm, and market entry was to become legally open to new airlines† (Williams, 2009, p. 78). The fact that U.S. is one of the highest performing countries in the world, and the reform strategy has been effective in the country, then the other countries are encouraged to adopt the diverse market deregulation. Today, airline firms are competing based on their sizes, assets count, competitive pricing and technological advancement. 1. Firm Competitiveness: Their Key Strengths and Weaknesses AA is one of the world’s largest air freight carriers, and they remain to be competitive despite of the existence of LCCs because they believe on their strengths from the principles of low costs, valued customers, cooperation, and strong financial condition (Subbarao & Murthy, 2005, p. 75). AA’s key strengths include 621 passenger fleet in more than 251 destinations in 41 countries, its alliances and partnerships with American Eagle and AmericanConnection (regional affiliates), Oneworld Airline Alliance, and trans-Atlantic and trans-Pacific joint business agreement. All these activities are realized by AA because of their strong relations with the government. Their key weaknesses include unstable financial position because of on-going economic crisis, high operating expenses and

Beckett vs Satre Essay Example for Free

Beckett vs Satre Essay Samuel Beckett’s vision of two lowly tramps in the middle of a derelict environment can be placed in direct contrast to the claustrophobic and eternal nightmare presented by Jean-Paul Sartre , but each playwright possessed objectives for their respective audiences and each shared a valued opinion on the theories of existentialism which can be established in the plays Waiting for Godot and No Exit. Beckett introduces the audience into a world of questioning and surrealist virtues and encourages the spectator to actually discuss the play and find the answer within. Sartre, however, presents his play as a placard for the virtues of existentialism and attempts to prove that â€Å"hell is other people†. When being asked about the sources for his ideas or advocating him as a pioneer for the Theatre of the Absurd, Beckett’s replies were often curt or dismissive. The Theatre of the Absurd was a term conceived by the critic Martin Esslin to describe the various playwrights who gave their artistic interpretations believing that human existence is futile and without meaning. According to Beckett himself the Theatre of the Absurd was too ‘judgemental’, too self-assuredly pessimistic: I have never accepted the notion of a theatre of the absurd, a concept that implies a judgement of value. It’s not even possible to talk about truth. That’s the part of the anguish. Sartre, however made his existentialist philosophies quite apparent. With his own theories he collaborated with the Dadaists and Surrealists after the Second World War and achieved to create his own ‘humanist’ way of thinking but with a prominent atheistic outlook. Sartre quoted rather proudly â€Å"L’homme est condamne a etre libre†¦l’homme est liberte. † Loosely translated he proclaims that â€Å"Man is condemned to be free†¦man is freedom. † Sartre firmly believed that man is nothing except his life and that consequently he is fully responsible for his actions. In Sartre’s existentialist world, man is committed to choose his own destiny without the help of any religion whether he wants to or not and he made this philosophy apparent in all of his works, unlike Beckett who used a more cryptic or absurd stance in his plays. With or without the use of absurdist ideals and other forms of the genre Beckett certainly portrayed the human values in his characters and considered the ideas of social conditioning and the existentialist notion of absolute freedom. Of all the ideologies written or philosophised over , existentialism seems to lend a lot of its virtues to Waiting for Godot. Ronan McDonald argues that absurdity and existence are fundamental to Beckett‘s work: There may be more affinity with another association of existentialism and Beckett’s beliefs, namely the idea of ‘absurdity’, though here (too) caution is advised. Without any grounding, without any reason for our being in the world, a certain strand of existentialist thought concludes that life is absurd, disordered and meaningless. The ‘absurd, disordered and meaningless’ which McDonald mentions is evident in the dialogue used in Waiting for Godot. Conversations between the two main characters of Estragon and Vladimir are often erratic and pointless and never seem to resolve at a natural climax. They bounce off each other instigating a retort which is unexpected and prompts an audience to laugh at the scenario with confusing intrigue. The dialogue in No Exit, on the other hand is logical and justified as it relates to the actual settings and situations of the characters. Beckett’s erratic streams of consciousness that materializes from his characters sometimes make no sense and compared to the confronting and direct speech in Sartre’s work, can sometimes be slightly confusing. Sartre’s characters all have a back story which can be deduced and discovered by the dialogue as opposed to the lack of any character history in Waiting for Godot. The audience can conclude that Estragon, Vladimir and Pozzo, although having different character traits, are all just waiting for Godot but do not know for how long or for what reason. Garcin, Estelle, and Inez in No Exit all have different traits, as does Beckett’s characters, but their characters are shaped from past despairs, sexuality or previous happenings in their lives which have evidently placed them in the hellish scenario in which they find themselves. Because of the situation in Sartre’s play, the audience can relate themselves to the characters on an empathetic level and create stronger opinions and less questionable virtues than that of Beckett’s enigmatic trio. The despair and degradation towards many civilians during the Second World War became an established influence in both Sartre and Beckett’s works during their most prolific period of writing after the conflict. The persecution of the Jewish people by the Nazi’s occupying Paris and Beckett’s personal actions within the French Resistance seemed to have spawned a firm principle and an underlying subtext within his plays. McDonald makes this apparent when he says: In his post-war career, though his work became ever less connected to a recognisable world, one could say, paradoxically, that it became more political, more shaped by exploitive power relations, edicts handed down from above, secrecy and inscrutability and descriptions of human torment. Many of these influences are indisputable in the relationship between Pozzo and Lucky throughout the first act in Waiting for Godot. During Act I of the play the abhorrent abuse Pozzo extends towards Lucky and the dismissive way in which he converses with the two slightly passive tramps creates a clear power divide between the characters. Beckett reverses the divide when in Act II Pozzo finds himself in distress and the power is redirected to the two tramps. As Pozzo is struggling helplessly on the floor like an up-ended beetle the two tramps, reminded of the chicken bone they received from him the day before, explain: VLADIMIR: He wants to get up. ESTRAGON:Then let him get up. VLADIMIR:He can’t. ESTRAGON:Why not? VLADIMIR:I don’t know. [POZZO writhes, groans, beats the ground with his fists. ] ESTRAGON:We should ask him for the bone first. Then if he refuses we’ll leave him there. VLADIMIR:You mean we have him at our mercy? By using Pozzo as the one in need and the two tramps as the one’s who can help, Beckett creates a pessimistic vision of human needs in a deliciously black pratfall. McDonald agrees when he says: Beckett’s work is notorious for it’s intense preoccupation with pessimism and human suffering, notwithstanding its bleak beauty and darkly acid comedy. Power and conflict can be found aplenty in Sartre’s hellish hotel room as all three characters seem to find themselves guilty of contraventions which have rendered them no better or worse for conscience in the eyes of the audience. Whereas Estragon and Vladimir use repetition and slapstick to form the basis of comic moments, Sartre’s characters use no such implements and keep the play solemn throughout. Garcin is the forlorn sadist, Estelle shrugs off her murderous past by being the conceited love-starved damsel and Inez stalks the room as the inert lesbian. Each character submits their own tales of woe and it is evident that none of them has the patience or understanding to cope with the others because as soon as a bond occurs between two characters, the third intervenes. Having one man and two women in the room (one of them being a lesbian with a keen eye on the other) sexual frustrations boil over to create various power struggles and along with the inept attempts to befriend or belittle and vexed attitudes on their morbid incarceration, the atmosphere becomes a tense hot-bed of conflict with each character in turn venting their grievance towards another. In Frederick Lumley’s New Trends In 20th Century Drama, he states; No love is possible in the presence of the third, no end is possible since the three must be together for eternity , â€Å"neither the knife, poison, rope† can enable them to escape this fact. With this fact constantly put forward by Sartre; the trio’s future looks bleakly endless and this inevitable outcome contributes to the rise in tension and conflict. Lumley continues; The play presents an endless repetition, a study in monotony which, far from being monotonous, is in fact intensely dramatic and most seducing. Beckett’s characters in Waiting for Godot all have their own motives and opinions but all seem to be quashed by the ever present threat of Godot appearing. The characters’ vivid streams of consciousness and erratic conversations take the audience along a confusing and often pointless narrative but Beckett seems to relish this as it makes the spectator question the morals and whole raison d’etre for the piece. Is Godot some sort of religious deity? Are the characters dead and living a life in endless purgatory? Is the story a tale of class and the power struggle that ensues from it? Beckett’s aims can be discussed and divulged for years to come and I believe that there is no one conclusive answer, but Eric P. Levy sums up his plays excellently when he says: â€Å"Beckett explores human experience as he finds it today: denied any explanations but desperately needing them. † I believe this to be the perfect description of what Beckett‘s aims were for the audience; being denied any explanation from Beckett himself and desperately wanting to know who or what Godot is. In stark contrast to Beckett’s surreal settings and arbitrary dialogue, Jean-Paul Sartre holds no blows when delivering his existentialist piece No Exit. The set itself is more representative of the hellish circumstances in which he has placed his characters as opposed to the stark emptiness of Beckett’s setting. The setting is just one room with no windows so characters and spectators alike have no sense of what time of day it is and a claustrophobic awareness is supported further by keeping the whole play within one act. In Waiting for Godot we observe all of the action in a sparse wilderness with just one solitary foliage-free tree as a visual representation of the outside world. The only hint of time passing is when the characters mention the previous days events or when the tree shows a mere sprouting of greenery in the second act of the piece. Along with the scenery the title of the play, No Exit, precedes dialogue and induces drama by giving a sense of inescapability and hopeless struggle to the play. Frederick Lumley describes the set beautifully in saying; †¦with it’s barren walls, it’s bricked up windows excluding daylight so that night and day are alike, the space where a mirror once hung (for in eternity one must look at others, not oneself anymore), is all part of a masochistic nightmare where continuity becomes an endless symphony of torture worse than any physical torture. With these points in mind it is evident that Sartre relied more on the situation in which his characters were based rather than the frivolities of Beckett’s characters and his absurdist approach. Although Beckett and Sartre shared the same philosophical outlooks on existentialism and the nature of human behaviour, Sartre used the theatre as his soap-box to create and present his philosophical views and tended to show the drama in the situation rather than the character based approach which Beckett utilized in most of his plays. Sartre himself states; As a successor to the theatre of characters we want to have a theatre of situation. The people in our plays will be distinct from one another not as a coward is from a miser or a miser from a brave man, but rather as actions are divergent or clashing, as right may conflict with right. Sartre uses the situation in No Exit to create the dramatic conflict and tense atmosphere whereas Beckett uses the theatre of absurdity with sparse and stunning dialogue to create some form of dramatic tension in Waiting for Godot. Conclusively this makes Beckett’s play very much more ambiguous compared to the out and out existentialist views portrayed in No Exit. The characters in Sartre’s piece all seem familiar to an audience who after witnessing the play have no quandary in deciding where the play leads or where it leads from and the content from it’s start to it‘s twisted and violent conclusion definitely advocates Sartre‘s theory; â€Å"Hell is other people. † Waiting for Godot, however, leaves the audience perplexed at the outcome and offers various questions as to the origin of it’s characters along with their motivations and mundane existence. With the erratic lines of action and the surreal and often pointless conversation, the audience can derive that the whole point of Waiting for Godot is; there is no point. But is this correct? Only Samuel Beckett could have revealed that answer. Bibliography Beckett. S. Waiting For Godot. Chatham: Faber Faber. 2006 ed. Sartre. J. P No Exit and three other plays. Vintage International. 1996 ed. McDonald. R. The Cambridge Introduction to Samuel Beckett. Cambridge: CUP. 2006. Levy. E. P. Beckett And The Voice Of The Species. Dublin: Macmillan. 1980 Knowlson. J McMillan (eds. ) The Theatrical Notebooks of Samuel Beckett, vol I: Waiting for Godot. London: Faber Faber, 1994. Unwin. S Woddis. C. A Pocket Guide To 20th Century Drama. London: Faber Faber. 2001. Lumley. F. New Trends In 20th Century Drama. London: Barrie Jenkins Ltd. 1972 ed. References Styan. J. L Modern Drama in Theory and Practice2 (Symbolism, Surrealism and the Absurd) Cambridge: CUP 1998 Lenny Love 2007 [ 2 ]. Knowlson, Damned to Fame, p. 178. [ 3 ]. New Trends In 20th Century Drama, Ch10 p139 [ 4 ]. Cambridge Intro to S. Beckett [ 5 ]. Cambridge Intro to S. Beckett Ch2, p22 [ 6 ]. Cambridge Intro to S. Beckett ch2, p23 [ 7 ]. Levy. E. P. Beckett the Voice of Species. p. 3. [ 8 ]. New Trends In 20th Century Drama. Ch10, p150 [ 9 ]. New Trends in 20th Century Drama. Ch10, p141.

Brood Parasitism of the Common Cuckoo

Brood Parasitism of the Common Cuckoo Brood parasitism by the common cuckoo Cuculus canorus has excited wonder, interest and speculation like few other bird behaviors. Its a species which had been studied and observed well before Darwins time, generating a wealth of information that has provided a deeper understanding of interactions among species. However, recent studies are bringing up more details of the coevolutionary relationship between the cuckoo and its hosts. The aim of this paper is threefold: to provide a concise review of the evolution of brood parasitism in the common cuckoo, to outline the different strategies that host species have evolved to deter parasitism, and to identify some of the counteradaptations the cuckoo has developed against those strategies. Introduction The extraordinary plasticity in breeding behavior of the family Cuculidae has no parallel among the worlds bird families. Of the 136 species of cuckoos, 83 provide parental care while 53 species parasitize nests, where eggs are incubated and parasites young are raised by a host species [1]. Of those 53 parasitic species, the common cuckoo Cuculus canorus (hereafter, cuckoo) is the most widespread in Europe, inhabiting a diverse array of habitats and having at least 15 different host-specific races [2]. Throughout history the cuckoo has attracted a wealth of attention and generated much fascination. In the fourth century BC, Aristotle accurately described the parasitic habits of the cuckoo, noting that the nestling cuckoo ejects the hosts eggs or young, casting out of the nest those with whom it has so far lived [3]. Despite these very early accounts of the cuckoos breeding behavior, it was not until the 1700s that cuckoos biology regained attention by scientists. However, the cuckoo literature generated prior to the mid-twentieth century was a mix of speculative observations and misconceptions. For instance, well into the 1750s it was thought that the female cuckoo upon laying the egg will carry it with her beak to the hosts nest [3]. Such an idea was mistakenly reinforced by observing cuckoo females carrying an egg, which later was proven to be the hosts eggs, but assuming it was the cuckoos egg [3]. This idea was later rejected by British physician Edward Jenner whose accurate observations led to the current description of the cuckoos parasitism [3]. Generally, cuckoos lay a single egg in a host nest. Upon hatching, the young cuckoo pushes out the host nestlings, and any unhatched eggs. The cuckoo nestling then demands undivided care from its hosts with an extraordinary begging display, which consists of bright orange gape and rapid calls to simulate several nestlings [4]. Evolution of cuckoo parasitism It was Charles Darwin who first intended attended to explain the evolution of brood parasitism in European cuckoos. In The Origin of Species Darwin described an example of brood parasitism by an American cuckoo species. The cuckoo was reared by a Blue Jay Cyanocitta cristata until it fledged the nest. This observation led Darwin to suggest that brood parasitism has evolved through a repetitive process in nature in which the young cuckoo inherits its mothers parasitic habits due to advantages gain in survival [3]. Darwin proposed that cuckoo parasitism evolved from parental cuckoos and phylogeny studies have supported his view. However, there is no consensus on how brood parasitism evolved. Taxonomists suggest that brood parasitism evolved as a separate event in two subfamilies of brood parasites, independently, the Old World Cuculinae and the New World Neomorphinae [1]. On the other hand, a phylogeny study based on bone characteristics suggests that brood parasitism evolved as a sing le event in the family, placing Cuculinae and Neomorphinae together, while the genus Coccyzus found in the New World, re-evolved parental care from a parasitic ancestor [1]. Yet another study on molecular phylogeny proposes three independent origins of brood parasitism, in genus Clamator, and other cuckoos of the Old World and cuckoos in the American continent [5]. Avian brood parasitism between distinct species is currently thought to have evolved from an ancestral line with parental care breeding or as an indirect consequence of brood parasitism between conspecifics [3]. However, while the argument still exists over which of the the two pathways leads to the parasitism of other species nests, there is greater support for the evolution of parasitism from a normal breeding behavior [1,3]. It is considered that the ancestral form of modern day cuckoos probably was a parental care, non-migratory inhabitant of tropical forest, and that changes in habitat, migration patterns, range size and foraging provoked the evolution of brood parasitism as a way to reduce order the cost of reproduction [1.3]. When comparing energy expenditure on reproduction, it was estimated that a parasitic cuckoo spends half the amount of energy of a parental cuckoo in achieving comparable reproductive success[1]. In fact, within the Cuculidae family there are important dis similarities between species with parental care and brood parasites. Cuckoos have a lower body mass, lay smaller eggs, and feed on prey of lesser size. [1]. In the comparative analysis done by Krà ¼ger and Davies (2002), it was concluded that the evolution of cuckoo parasitism was the result of changes in the ecology of a parental ancestor and that once a parasitic behavior was adapted further specializations occurred. a. From raising your own offspring to be a brood parasite Before brood parasitism evolved, there were key changes in the ecology and behavior of forest cuckoos. Initially, forest cuckoos expanded their range to include more open and seasonal habitats. This habitat expansion provoked a more migratory behavior, an increase in breeding-range size and the availability of new food sources [1]. These changes in ecology required a reduction in energy invested in reproduction. When comparing energy expenditure on reproduction, it was estimated that a parasitic cuckoo spends half the amount of energy of a parental cuckoo in achieving comparable reproductive success[1]. Therefore, selection for brood parasitism became the emerging consequence of the ecological changes mentioned above. b. Brood parasitism caused the evolution of specialized parasitic adaptations Upon the adaptation of obligated brood parasitism, cuckoo eggs became smaller. Kruger and Davies (2002) suggest two hypotheses for the reduction in egg size. First, parasitic cuckoos were able to increase clutch size which may have been possible upon the reduction of overall egg size. Since most hosts are smaller than their parasitic cuckoos, an adaptation to a decrease in egg size would have been selected in order to avoid host rejection while improving incubation efficiency. A preference for smaller hosts increases the number of egg-laying opportunities since there is a greater abundance of smaller species than larger ones [1] . An adaptation to a parasitic behavior might have also freed the cuckoo of the diet restraint when selecting breeding habitat. By relying on the host parental care, cuckoos are able to exploit a diversity of breeding habitats for breeding even those habitat where adult cuckoos cannot forage. Kruger and Davies (2002) note that some common cuckoos are required to travel large distances when breeding in marshlands while foraging in woodland areas. This independence from breeding habitat restraints have enabled the common cuckoo to increase its range through Europe. Factors that affect brood parasitism by the Common Cuckoo The size of the host and its abundance is an important predictor of host parasitism [3]. There is a greater diversity and abundance of small bird species; which provides the cuckoo a larger pool of possible hosts. The density of the cuckoo at a given area also plays a crucial role. It was found that rejection rate increase as the rate of parasitism goes up in a given area [6]. A greater density of female cuckoos at the breeding area of the selected hosts increases the chances that the hosts see a cuckoo female and proceed with egg rejection or nest desertion [6]. This might be one of the multiple explanations for the fact that cuckoos are more widespread and their breeding-range is significantly larger than parental species of the same family. Additionally the choice of nesting site affects brood parasitism. Nests located nearby trees have a significant increase on the risk of being parasitized [7]. Female cuckoos perch on trees to gather information on the hosts nest building activi ty and therefore the availability of visual points are crucial for the cuckoo to determine hosts nest location [7]. Therefore, it is expected of the cuckoos hosts to show a high degree of plasticity in choice of nest site in order to decrease the distance to visual vantage point and to increase nest concealment [7]. Interestingly, female cuckoos seem to gather cues from the host behavior not only to determine nest location but also to reveal the hosts parental capacities. Males that sing more actively during breeding season tend to attract females that built larger nests. It was found that in great reed warblers Acrocephalus arundinaceous nestlings raise in larger nests receive more feeding than those in a small nest [8]. It will be expected to see a larger rate of parasitism in hosts that are more vocal and active during nest construction. However, it was found that hosts with a high degree of signal expression nearby the nest are also more eager to defend the nest against intruder s and to reject cuckoo eggs. Therefore, cuckoos may favor a host with a smaller nest and whose activity is less visually conspicuous [8]. Polacikova et al. (2009) also found that great reed warblers affected by cuckoo parasitism have higher body condition than individuals freed of parasitism. Additionally, females hosts had higher body mass and presented less uniformity in egg coloration [9] Host defensive strategies against cuckoos parasitism Brood parasitism by the cuckoo brings multiple costs to the host [2]. The primary cost is the loss of an egg once the female cuckoo lays hers. Additionally, rejection requires the expense of energy and time (for recognition) and it includes the risk of discriminating the hosts own eggs. By accepting the cuckoos egg the reproductive success of the host is then jeopardize since upon hatching the young cuckoo pushes out the hosts nestlings [4]. Furthermore, the host parents must raise a much larger chick which demands more food than the hosts own nestlings. This costly is highly increased in the extraordinary case when the host and cuckoo nestlings grow up together like in the parasitism of the Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus [2]. Due to the multiple costs associated with brood parasitism, many host species have evolved adaptations to cope with parasitism; such as egg rejection and nest desertion [10]. However, these adaptations only partially offset the costs of parasitism since they take place once the nest has been already parasitized. Therefore, some host species have also evolved adaptations to eliminate laying opportunities for the cuckoo. Nesting in safe places, constructing well hidden nests, or an active protection of the nest from intrusions are example of adaptations that host species have evolved to avoid being parasitized [10,11]. Mobbing behavior The reed warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus is one of the species most readily selected by cuckoos as host for their eggs and therefore has evolved adaptations that demonstrate a coevolutionary arms race with the common cuckoo [12,13]. Mobbing, the attacking or harassing of cuckoos by reed warblers has been determined to be an effective first line of defense against parasitism [12]. It has been well documented that reed warbler use audible and visual displays that in occasion lead to direct physical attacks to dissuade parasitism. Such defensive behavior reduces the probability of parasitism and it is a direct cost to cuckoos which might lose feathers or suffer injuries during physical attacks by reed warblers [12]. Additionally, mobbing attracts predators, and other brood parasites thus posing an indirect cost since the cuckoo or its eggs might be at risk of predation [12]. The costs inflicted on the cuckoo can also be associated to the costs suffer by the reed warbler that mob brood p arasites. First of all, there is a physical similarity between common cuckoos and sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus [10], a potential predator of reed warblers. Therefore, reed warblers may need to spend time to identify the type of threat, parasitism or predation, before engaging in a mobbing display [12]. In addition, the same indirect costs that mobbing brings to the cuckoo are also to the reed warbler which unknowingly might be attracting more parasites and predators to the nesting area [12]. Therefore, the costs inflicted on the host select for a defensive behavior that discriminates between the type of threat and the degree of parasitism [12]. Although some passerine birds will mob a possible predators, nesting adult reed warbler have not been observed doing it. Welbergen and Davies (2008) note that adult reed warblers seek cover and remain silent in the presence of a sparrowhawk near the nest [10]. Since sparrowhawks are a direct threat to the adults while cuckoos are to the nest, it makes sense that reed warblers mob the latter and not the former [12]. Reed warblers also show plasticity in their mobbing behavior in terms of risk of nest parasitism. In areas where there is a higher probability that the cuckoos are able to find hosts nest, mobbing is the best strategy, while in areas with a low probability the best defensive method may be to avoid active and visible displays and remain hidden but alert [12]. By presenting reed warblers with taxidermic mounts of cuckoos, Welbergen and Davies (2009) concluded that mobbing is an adapted, phenotypically trait with high plasticity in the defense against parasitism [12]. Alarms Calls and Nest Guarding It was previously noted that cuckoos and sparrowhawks share a resemblance that might pose a challenge for reed warblers in their nest defensive strategies. However, reed warblers have shown to vary their auditory displays accordingly to the kinds of danger and the subsequent response by conspecifics [10]. Welbergen and Davies (2008) showed that reed warblers are able to identify cuckoos from sparrowhawks with alarm calls that attract not only mates but nearby neighbors. The alarms signals by reed warblers in the presence of a cuckoo are characterized by rasps and snaps. Rasps have a sharp commencement and a wide frequency range, which are important features that enable the location of the emitter [10]. Alarms calls therefore are an important communal defensive mechanism against parasitism. Nest attendance and egg rejection by reed warblers might increase due to the information provided by the alarm calls emitted by neighbor conspecifics [10]. Additionally, alerting on the presence of cuckoos might trigger the mobbing of the parasite by multiple reed warblers which could eject the cuckoo. Nest guarding has also been identified as a defensive strategy against parasitism. However, it is more passive and less conspicuous than mobbing and alarm displaying [11]. An increase in nest guarding has been observed after laying has begun and is usually done by the male. This behavior might able the reed warblers to gain information about cuckoos presence and chance of parasitism. Spotting a cuckoo before laying has begun might trigger nest desertion whereas the sighting of a cuckoo once laying commences might increase the likelihood of rejection of the cuckoos egg [11]. Egg rejection Hosts species have evolved two mechanisms in order to eject cuckoo eggs. In the case of hosts with large beaks, the eggs are grasped and evicted out of the nest while species unable to grasp the egg, puncture and then eject the parasites egg [14]. The reproductive success is minimal if a host accepts a cuckoo egg due to the innate behavior of the cuckoo nestling of evicting hosts eggs and nestlings. Therefore, species parasitized by cuckoos should strongly select for an ejection adaptation to parasitism if the host is physically able of ejecting cuckoo eggs [14]. For those species whose beak is too small to grasp the beak and that puncturing the egg would be too costly or impossible, nest desertion is the strategy selected once parasitism has been identified [14,15]. The cost to the hosts when trying to puncture cuckoo eggs has been demonstrated in marsh warblers Acrocephalus palustris which after unsuccessfully attempting to puncture the eggs have damaged their own eggs [15]. Cuckoos Responses to Overcome Hosts Adaptations Cuckoo parasitism has led to the selection of defense mechanisms by the hosts. At the same time, in this coevolutionary arms race, more sophisticated trickeries are selected by the cucook [1,16]. Egg mimicry and vocal mimicry by the nestlings are of the most significant traits evolved in the cuckoo to cope with hosts defensive responses. Egg Mimicry The recognition and ejection of cuckoo eggs have selected for an increase in mimicry of the host egg by the cuckoo whose eggs display a high variability in color and/or spotting due to the diverse number of hosts it parasitizes [16]. In a reed warbler study of parasitism by the common cuckoo, Avilà ©s et al. (2006) found the surprising speed in which egg similarity between the two species evolved in recently parasympatric poputions of reed warblers and cuckoos. Using museum egg collections, it was found that in 23 years, the degree of egg matching increase considerably [16]. Avilà ©s et al. note this rapid improvement egg matching a micro-evolutionary response to host removal of eggs differing in color or size and that egg mimicry has coevolved with this rejection behaviour [16]. The importance of egg mimicry was exemplified by Antonov et al. (2008) on a study of cuckoo egg rejection by marsh warblers. On the study, unmanipulated cuckoo eggs were accepted more readily than painted cuckoo and great reed warbler eggs placed in marsh warbler nests [15]. The aim of the Antnovo et al. was to determine the importance of egg shell strength in deterring egg rejection. However, since painted cuckoo eggs suffered a higher rejection rate, it was indicated that egg mimicry is pivotal in determining the probability of rejection [15]. Vocal or Visual Mimicry by Parasite Nestlings Brood parasites can be differentiated into two categories: Nonevictors which are parasites that grow up alongside the hosts young and evictors in which the young parasite either kills the hosts nestlings or expels them out of the nest along with any unhatched eggs [17]. Nonevictor species include the brown-headed cowbird, Molothrus ater, finches of the Vidua genus and great spotted cuckoo, Clamator glandarius. While the common cuckoo is a evictor brood parasite. Nonevictors showed certain mimicry of the host chicks as a counteradaptation against the host adult learning of the characteristics of the chicks during first brood. These imprinting of its own chicks characteristics will later permit the rejection of chicks that are different [17]. For example, Vidua finch young show great resemblance of the mouth spot patterns of their hosts chicks [17]. On the other hand, this adaptation has not been selected in hosts of evictor parasites. Since the cuckoo nestling is raised alone, imprint ing the characteristics of the parasite chick will be detrimental to future broods [17]. Butchart et al. (2003) found that the begging calls produced by four different common cuckoo races did not differ which lead to the conclusion that in evictor species there is not selection for evolution of visual or vocal mimicry by the parasite chick [17]. However, it should be advantageous for the cuckoo nestling to respond to the host alarm calls given in the presence of a predator [18]. Davies et al. (2006) concluded that cuckoos that specialize on reed warblers have not only well-matched eggs but also chicks that are well-tuned to the hosts alarm calls [18]. Summary Coevolution relationship among species are significant in order to understand how species select for adaptations accordingly to the other species. In the case of brood parasitism by the common cuckoo, that relationship is truly an arms race. For instance, egg rejection lead to egg mimicry which in turn might lead to clutch variability in the host. However, before egg rejection is selected, hosts have evolved a first line of defense that includes direct confrontation against the parasite. The costs of parasitism are evident for the host species but also the parasite carries its own costs. As a relation observed well before Darwin and his theory of evolution, the cuckoo-host interaction was provided with a solid framework to be better study and understood once Darwins work became public. However, necessity for further research remains. There is limited work on the biology and ecology of cuckoo nestlings. Also there is still no detailed explanations on the failure of hosts to recognized cuckoos young as a different species [3]. Furthermore, as anthropogenic actions change natural ecosystems at a rapid scale, further research is needed in the relationship between cuckoos and hosts and the factors affected by habitat alterations. [7].

Family, Marriage, And Gender Roles :: Sociology, Family Values

Family, Marriage, and Gender Roles   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the core of American identities and American dreams lies a family. Throughout time, families serve as a connection between the individual and the outside world. The individual's identity, his or her dreams, in large part depend on the family of origin or a family of choice. The individual is shaped through beliefs, values, and assumptions that the family holds about the world and that are based on family member's experiences and collective memory. The family itself, in turn derives its values from the social, cultural, political, and philosophical assumptions and beliefs of the larger, and more dominant culture.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In today's modern society, assumptions regarding a family can be very widespread. Ranging from the conservative viewpoint to the more liberal view. The conservative is the more traditional view of the two. Believing that the only true family is the joint relationship of a husband, wife, and children is a thing of the past. Recently an alarming number of unfavorable situations have arisen. These situations range from one-parent families to the inexplicable situation of two partners of the same sex. What happens to a society where the nuclear family is no longer the dominant configuration? Only time will tell.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being brought up in a traditional environment, I have very conservative views on the concept of a family. When I was young, my Mother did not work. She would stay at home with me until I was about thirteen years old. I feel that, if possible, a mother should stay home with her children. In my eyes, the main responsibility of a Mother is to furnish her children with as much attention as possible. Without the necessary attention the child will grow up striving for attention, and will do everything in his or her power to receive it. In the model nuclear family, the Father is the individual who is responsible for earning a substantial living. Providing for the family: a home, food, and a sense of security; the Father is an important factor in the up bringing of a family. Unfortunately, many families do not have the luxury of a nuclear family. They must survive on their perseverance, along with a little bit of luck along the way.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In our textbook, Moser and Waters accurately depict the essentials of family values. The one essay that seems to support my own set of values is the one entitled Reserve Marriage for Heterosexuals. I feel that a family has nothing to gain by allowing homosexuals to adopt children and start their own families. The essay depicts that children that are raised without a Mother and

Analyse the Ethos of Partnership with Parents Essay

The relationship between parent and practitioner or the service that they are working within is crucial to the effective outcome for all those concerned. It now seems impossible in modern Britain to imagine developing any kind of relationship with a child without taking into account the wider family and the impact it has on that child. Given that this is the case it is essential to understand the nature of that relationship and although there can be many types, the most effective parent-practitioner relationship is a partnership. Ideally, this would be defined by mutual participation, shared power, involving the expertise of both partners, with agreement about aims and process, negotiation, mutual respect and trust, and open and honest communication. In caring for someone else’s child, we inevitably work within an ‘emotional framework’ (BOVE 2001) and need to ensure that the ‘equivalent expertise’ of parents is fully recognised. Although the idea of partnership is widely accepted in current service policy, its meaning is rarely fully understood. Dictionary’s provide a range of meanings from â€Å"a person who takes part with another in doing something† to â€Å"an accomplice† but a parent- practitioner partnership has to be one in which both parties work closely together with active participation and involvement as opposed to the professional working on (e. g. treating) the parent. A fitting definition of partnership working that sits with this ethos is: ‘†¦. cross sector alliance in which individuals, groups or organisations agree to: work together to fulfil an obligation or undertake a specific task; share the risks as well as the benefits; and review the relationship regularly, revising their agreement as necessary. ’ (Quoted in Partnership made painless – a joined-up guide to working together, Harrison R et al, Russell House Publishing, 2003) In education, the idea of a partnership between parents and practitioners has been around for many years. In the late 1970s the Warnock Report reviewed provision for children with special educational needs in England and Wales. The report contained an influential chapter entitled ‘Parents as partners’ (CEEHCYP, 1978). In 2003 the government published a green paper called Every Child Matters (ECM). This started a big debate about services for children, young people and families. There was a wide consultation with people working in children’s services, and with parents, children and young people. The organisations involved with providing services to children and young people – from hospitals and schools to police and voluntary groups – began to team up in new ways, sharing information and working together to protect children and young people from harm. Following the consultation, the government published Every child matters: the next steps, and passed the Children Act 2004, providing the legal framework for developing more effective and accessible services focused around the needs of children, young people and families. In November 2004, Every child matters: change for children was published. This outlines the way local programmes for children, young people and families should be developed. Every Child Matters emphasises a vision for working with families that puts outcomes for children and young people first. It stated that working together as a partnership had a positive effect on parenting. For example, more self-confident adults are likely to be more self-confident parents. Together from the start, guidance published in 2003, on which the Early Support programme is based, said: ‘Parents have rights and responsibilities in relation to the development and care of their child. Professionals have a duty to acknowledge and understand the unique role and relationship each parent has with their child. ‘ This focus is shared by many other and more wide-ranging policy initiatives. The Children’s Plan, Building brighter futures, which sets out a ten-year Government agenda from 2007, identifies partnership with parents as its ‘unifying theme’. A partnership needs to respect the special knowledge that each partner brings to the relationship. Parents are the experts on their own children and when a partnership is built upon the well-being and the rights of all concerned and share common goals and shows mutual respect for differing roles and opinions, then children,parents and practitioners will all benefit. There are a number of basic principles of partnership as defined in the Quality in Diversity in Early Learning (Early Education Forum 1998). Below is a brief summary of these principles and how they can be achieved within a setting or any relationship: * Respect children/adults as individuals regardless of ability, disability, race and religion. Encourage individuals to bring in items from home to inform groups/practitioners about their culture or every day experiences. Personalised transition stages. * Respect cultural differences and beliefs in raising a child and explore these with open and sensitive dialogue. Speak to the parents about their belief systems and how they differ, explore ideas that may not be apparent to them. Self-education regarding differing cultures. * Have a willingness to relate to children and their parents in diverse ways and to share the responsibility of the relationship Home/school agreements. ‘Family plan’ booklets. Agreed aims and objectives and clear outcome indicators. * Respect parents in their decisions. Set up good communication methods ie. communication book. Set up parent councils for settings. Regular feed back questionnaires. * Commit to communicate regularly and in as many languages as needed. Translators. Literature in differing languages. Parent notice boards. Newsletters. * Commit to listen to parental views and take their concerns into account Regular meetings and open communication. Feedback questionnaires. Parent days. * Clear communication about the ways in which parents can contribute to their child’s education and improve the quality of the setting at home as well as outside. Offering parenting groups (i. e. PEEP) Parenting courses (i. e. literature and numeracy) * Clear communication channels between parent and practitioner to share knowledge. Communication book, being approachable and listening. Acting on the parents suggestion. Discussing aims and outcomes. * Clear procedures to support parents becoming involved in the management and day to day life of their children in various settings. Home/school agreements. Parent consultation days. Parent workshops. Open access. Partnership is not a relationship that can develop quickly and naturally; it requires time, effort and skill. It also follows that an effective partnership may not be possible in all cases or at all times; it depends upon what the participants bring to the situation, and some may not want or be able to work with others in this way. The better the partnership between the parent and practitioner the easier it will become to achieve agreed outcomes. Parents will be more in control and motivated and will understand what is expected of them in their role as partner. In sharing the process the parent will feel more empowered and is more likely to draw on lessons learnt in times of future difficulty. Their trust of professionals will also be reinforced and they are more likely to ask for help in other aspects of their lives.

Female Employee Files Lawsuit against Bank of America Essays

Female Employee Files Lawsuit against Bank of America Essays Female Employee Files Lawsuit against Bank of America Essay Female Employee Files Lawsuit against Bank of America Essay Female Employees File Lawsuit Against Bank of America March 31 2010, three female Financial Adviser filed a national class action lawsuit against Bank of America and Merrill Lynch alleging sex discrimination. The New York Times reports that the lawsuit, which was filed in New York, claims that the companies have violated several federal and New York state laws, including Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and  the New York State Human Rights Law. Employment lawyer Kelly M. Dermody says that While Merrill Lynch and Bank of America have favored male Financial Advisers to receive lucrative client opportunities, they have penalized female Financial Advisers financially for not being chosen for those advantages they created. The plaintiffs with this case include Judy Calibuso, Julie Moss, and Dianne Goedtel, who are seeking back pay and unspecified damages. In addition, theyre asking the court for a class-action status. The suit states that Bank of America and Merrill Lynch have company wide policies and practices that results with an unchecked gender bias in the workplace. Bank of America acquired Merrill Lynch in December 2008, making it the largest financial company in the nation. In Texas, thousands of people are employed with the company and with a class-action lawsuit, many residents of the Houston might be able to join the suit without hiring a Houston employment lawyer. : Yet Bank of Amercia representatives have denied the gender discrimination allegations, and say that the company plans to defend itself against the claims. In a statement, representatives even said that the company has been recognized for its success in creating and supporting a diverse and inclusive work force Institute Of business and management UET, Lahore. Submitted by Chemical Engineer Adnan Khalid, MBA-Operations and Management.